1. Introduction

The concept of the psychological type has been in use since antiquity. One of the first known classifications was proposed by Hippocrates in the form of four temperaments (Freeman, 1997; Kępiński, 1974). In modern times, interest in this concept intensified with the birth of psychoanalysis and general psychology. Psychologists agreed that there are various types of patients with different types of nervous system, to which therapists should adapt their methods (Kępiński, 1978). Classifications of psychological types originate from studies of pathologies, because, in pathological cases, individual differences are amplified and easily visible. Among these classifications, the one proposed by Jung stands out as the most philosophical (Jung, 1921). His concepts of introversion/extraversion, feeling/thinking, and sensing/intuition have, since their introduction in the first half of the 20th century, stood the test of time. Studies utilizing this Jungian classification are still published (Hewett & Martini, 2018; Pearson & Dollinger, 2004; Wilson, 2000) even though Jung’s method and theory are often criticized for not having a sufficient scientific basis (Jones, 2013).

Modern Jungian typology divides people into sixteen psychological types, based on their two strongest cognitive functions (Blutner & Hochnadel, 2010). Each type is a unique combination of intelligences and weak spots. It is obvious that the problem-solving capabilities of a single person are limited compared to those of multiple cooperating individuals representing different psychological types. However, until recently, there was no sound theory allowing the outcome of group cooperations to be predicted and to investigate their mechanics in detail. A relevant theory, based on Jungian typology, was developed in the 1980s by Lithuanian sociologist Aušra Augustinavičiūtė, and is known as socionics (Augustinavičiūtė, 1998a). This theory assumes that each person may be assigned to one of the Jungian psychological types. The type theory was translated by Augustinavičiūtė to the language of cybernetics (Wiener, 1961). Within this paradigm, each Jungian type is represented as an information-processing unit with one of 16 possible architectures. If two or more units are connected, they form a new system with altered capabilities. These capabilities can be predicted by Augustinavičiūtė’s cybernetic theory. Unfortunately, this theory is not known well outside the countries of the former Soviet Union, where it was originally developed.

Augustinavičiūtė was especially interested in the study of family problems. She noticed that some marriages were beneficial to both partners while others resulted in misunderstandings and negative health effects. She suspected that the personality types of the partners played a very important role in family relationships, but there was no theoretical basis enabling her to analyze this issue in greater detail. The situation changed when she read Kępiński’s works introducing the concept of information metabolism (IM) (Bielecki, 2015; Ceklarz, 2018; Kępiński, 1972a, 1972b, 1974, 1977, 1978, Kokoszka, 1993, 1999, 2007; Kokoszka, Bielecki, & Holas, 2001; Struzik, 1986a, 1986b). Kępiński viewed mental disorders as disruptions of information processing occurring in the nervous system. Bearing that in mind, Augustinavičiūtė concluded that relationships between incompatible partners result in the disruption of IM, while those between compatible individuals have positive effects on IM. She also proposed a model of IM in the human psyche to support her theory.

The rationale behind the socionic model of the human psyche was discussed by Pietrak (Pietrak, 2018). However, this review lacked the explanation of larger cybernetic constructs resulting from the socionic model. The invention of that model shed light on interpersonal problems arising between two individuals in the family, in education, and in business environments, but socionics researchers immediately noticed that the theory was universal enough to be applied in the analysis of larger groups. This paper constitutes a review of the developments of the socionic theory including both the model of individual psyche and the models of one-to-one relationships and larger groups. Some philosophical considerations regarding basic terms used in socionics, such as information or information metabolism, were not properly addressed in the literature. These topics will be addressed in the current paper. Another important topic considered in this article is the criticism of the socionic method, related mainly but not exclusively to its Jungian basis. Jung’s theory and its derivatives are widely criticized as based on a methodology which is not accepted in modern science (Wallis, 2004). Despite being criticized by the scientific community, socionics is applied in multiple fields ranging from family consulting and management to economic and political studies. Examples of its typical applications will be mentioned in the final sections of the article. It should be noted that the level of complexity of socionic theory is relatively high and many of its aspects were purposefully omitted from this review. Only the most important concepts fundamental to understanding social interaction mechanisms are discussed. This base should make difficult topics easier to understand for those readers wishing to continue their study of socionics.

2. On the nature of information and its metabolism

Kępiński regarded life as composed of two metabolisms. He made a distinction between energy metabolism (EM) and information metabolism (IM) (from Greek metaballein - to change) (Kępiński, 1972a, 1972b, 1974, 1977, 1978). The energy metabolism, according to his conception, takes place in living cells and encompasses the processes of destruction (catabolism) and creation (anabolism) of complex molecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids). Creation of new molecules requires energy which is harnessed during the destruction of other molecules. It was discussed by Pietrak how this process may be compared to energy transformation in a heat engine (Pietrak, 2018).

2.1 Shannon information

The notion of energy metabolism seems relatively easy to understand. It is not so easy with information and its metabolism. The term information is often used by philosophers, engineers and scientists in more than one sense. In fact, it is frequently used without a precise definition. Shannon defined information mathematically, as the measure of entropy (disorder) in a given set of data (Shannon, 1948). A data source may be conceptualized as a random variable. If random variable X assumes value a1 with probability p = 1, then such data source generates no information (because there is 100% certainty about which value will appear in the next step). If, however, a random variable can assume multiple values a1, a2, a3, …, an, then the information entropy calculated for such data source will be positive. The highest entropy is obtained if each value is assumed with equal probability (p=1/n). In other cases (i. e. when some outcomes are more probable than others) the entropy will be lower. The more uncertainty there is as to which value will appear, the more the appearance of a specific value generates information (Piccinini & Scarantino, 2011). Shannon’s theory is purely mathematical and applied mainly in communication technology, as a quantitative measure of information contained in messages. The messages for which the quantity of information may be calculated do not have to be strings of digits. They may also be continuous variables. The semantic content (or meaning) of messages is not considered in Shannon’s notion of information. Nevertheless, this notion finds application in mind-related disciplines. For example in neuroscience, where it is used to measure the quantity of information carried by neural signals about a stimulus and to estimate the efficiency of coding (what forms of neural responses are optimal for carrying information about stimuli) (Piccinini & Scarantino, 2011).

2.2 Semantic information

In philosophy, mind sciences and everyday life, the semantic content of messages or signals is essential when the notion of information is used. In that case, the notion of information is related with meaning and knowledge (Piccinini & Scarantino, 2011). A mathematician may use Shannon’s theory to calculate the quantity of information stored in a fragment of text written in some foreign language, but he or she will not know what the text means unless he understands that language. Strings of letters, digits and signals in general may carry some semantic information (e.g. a ”No smoking” sign written in German as ”Rauchen verboten”) as well as Shannon information, which is the measure of their ”entropy”.

2.3 Information and thermodynamics

The term entropy appeared originally in thermodynamics, where it was discovered to be one of functions of the state of thermodynamic systems (Cengel & Boles, 2006). Boltzmann developed a theory which allowed him to associate entropy with statistical mechanics (Boltzmann, 1896). In that theory, entropy was related with the number of microscopic configurations (for example positions and momenta of particles) that a thermodynamic system (such as the ideal gas) can have when in a state as specified by some macroscopic variables (e.g. pressure, volume, temperature). Boltzmann’s equation for entropy of a thermodynamic system has the same form as the equation at which Shannon arrived in his search for the appropriate measure of informational content of messages (Shannon, 1948). This fact motivated Brillouin to publish an interesting work about the connections between thermodynamics and information theory (Brillouin, 1950, 1953, 1956). In this work he demonstrated how entropy of a thermodynamic system may be reduced with the use of information (the knowledge of the system). The idea was introduced earlier by Maxwell, but it lacked a detailed formal analysis (Earman & Norton, 1998, 1999). Brillouin notes that the reduction of entropy in the system must be counterbalanced with an equal or greater increase of entropy in its environment, to assure that second law of thermodynamics is not violated. According to the theory, information (knowledge of the system) can be converted into negative entropy or negentropy (entropy with a minus sign). Brillouin’s work may be seen as the bridge between semantic (psychological) notion of information, nonsemantic (quantitative) measure proposed by Shannon and physical notion of entropy known from thermodynamics.

2.4 Information and uncertainty

All aforementioned notions of information are related with uncertainty and its reduction. From the psychological perspective, reduction of uncertainty is of paramount importance to organisms. One can think of such objectives like orienting oneself in a new environment, avoiding predators or locating the sources of nourishment, which are crucial for survival. Kępiński incorporated the concept of uncertainty reduction into his theory of information metabolism, by stating that organisms increase the negative entropy of their bodies and immediate surroundings, contrary to inanimate objects which obey the increase of entropy principle (Kępiński, 1978). This view was inspired by Schrödinger, who emphasized that entropy management is essential in living systems (Schrödinger, 1944). In the field of psychology, Schrödinger inspired not only Kępiński’s information metabolism theory but also a more recent theory of psychological entropy proposed by Hirsh et al (Hirsh, Mar, & Peterson, 2012). From the point of view of cybernetics, metabolism of information in a living being may be described as the mapping between the sensory input patterns and output motor patterns.

Let us think about the nature of the objective reality which is sensed by the sensory neurons in animals and humans. Wittgenstein proposed that reality is represented in thought as objects and their relationships (Wittgenstein, 1922). Neuropsychological theories assume that reality consists of stimuli (Gray, 1982; Kępiński, 1972a). These formulations may easily lead to the conclusion that physical reality is indeed made of objects or stimuli existing independently of the perceiving mind. Such view is wrong as the boundaries between objects or stimuli are situation-dependent and subjectively-determined (Peterson, 2013). The number of ways in which those boundaries may be arranged is infinite. This tremendous complexity must be intelligently simplified to become informative. It may be interpreted only in relation to some reference points. As noticed by Peterson, “objects” are entities bounded by their affective relationship to a goal (Peterson, 2013). The long-term goals for organisms were identified by Kępiński (Kępiński, 1972a, 1977), who stated that each individual is primarily oriented to assure the continuity of its own life (egocentric orientation) and the continuity of its species (altruistic orientation). Jung emphasized that for humans, the need for preserving life is taken to the realm of abstraction, just because they are capable of abstract thought (Jacobi, 1968). That fact explains human aspiration for transcendence and the hope for an afterlife. The process of attaining these ultimate goals may be decomposed into multiple separate processes in which smaller component goals are achieved.

The Kantian thing-in-itself (the objective reality) cannot be known in its entirety due to the limited capacity of the perceivers (organisms), for example the limitation of their presence to a specific range of time and space and constrained cognitive capabilities of their brains. Because of that, there is always a distinction between the unknown territory and the known territory or chaos and order (Hirsh et al., 2012; Peterson, 2008, 2013; Peterson & Pihl, 1990). Various researchers tried to characterize the way in which humans organize, perceive and process information consciously. Jung concluded that it is the task of the four functions of consciousness i.e. sensation, intuition, feeling and thinking (Jung, 1921). He also identified two psychological attitudes i.e. subjective (introverted) and objective (extraverted). Piaget proposed the four-staged theory of cognitive development (Piaget, 1977). Luria (Luria, 1960, 1980), Sokolov (Sokolov, 1963), Vinogradova (Vinogradova, 1961, 1975, 2001) and Gray (Gray, 1982, 1987; Gray & McNaughton, 2003) hypothesized that complex organisms develop a complete internal model of the world which allows them to interact with reality. The idea that an existing internal structure of knowledge is needed to interpret new phenomena is logical. Such a model would allow to formulate expectations, contrast them with the actual course of events, and make necessary adjustments (Hirsh et al., 2012; Peterson, 2013).

It is quite reasonable to assume that simple organisms lack such sophisticated models of reality. In their case the intermediary computational structure between sensory inputs and motor outputs is similar to that of a simple automaton. Adequately to this fact, their spectrum of possible behavioral patterns (and more abstractly - their world) is much less complex than that of higher animals. Let us note that the material structure of the body contains information in a sense that it is designed by evolution as a tool to reduce various uncertainties. To solve a new type of problem, an animal must adapt by altering its body, which is achieved only thorough natural selection. This process is unintelligent and probabilistic, yet it produces very intricate and sophisticated designs. By contrast, humans may effectively simulate various possibilities in their minds and invent new tools which expand their capabilities (Ananthaswamy, 2017; Piaget, 1971). The latter process is significantly faster and gives us great evolutionary advantage.

After many years of psychological research, Jung noticed that the internal models of reality of humans from different cultures shared some common elements which he called the archetypes (Jacobi, 1968). Archetypes may be generally decomposed into characters or personalities (i.e. the Great Mother, the hero, the Self) and life events (i.e. death and birth, facing the unknown, overcoming the difficulties etc.). The combination of these characters and events gives the archetypal narrative structures or stories. Jung postulated that archetypes act as reference points to other contents of the mind (Jacobi, 1968). As such, they form the basis for the formulation of meaning. It should be noted that archetypal stories are in good agreement with the evolutionary perspective. For example, the archetypal hero story represents a mode of being which results in the reproductive success of the individual and assures prosperity for their community (e.g. fighting against dangers that threaten the community). Therefore, it is reasonable to say that archetypes are the method by which the voice of nature manifests at the level of the subjective experience in human beings. It is worth mentioning that the REM sleep phase occurs even in newborn animals, which suggest that they dream, despite having no visual experience of the world (Kępiński, 1974). That suggests that some sort of internal psychological life is a priori built into organisms.

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